Since transitioning to a market-based, parliamentary democracy, Bulgaria has made significant strides in reforming its education and skills systems. Key achievements include expanding compulsory education, raising participation in the early years to OECD levels, modernising curricula across the system, and facilitating access to adult learning. The 2021–2030 Strategic Framework for Education and Training—supported by increased public investment and EU funding—has revitalized efforts to improve the quality and inclusiveness of the education system to equip all learners with the skills needed for a changing economy. These reforms are central to tackling national challenges, such as low productivity, income inequality, and demographic decline, and to unlocking inclusive economic and social development in Bulgaria.

This report assesses Bulgaria’s policies and practices against those of OECD and reference countries in Central and Eastern Europe, covering the full learning lifecycle – from early childhood education and care to lifelong learning. It identifies the system’s major strengths and challenges and explores how Bulgaria can draw on OECD evidence and international experience to advance its education reform agenda. The report will be of interest in Bulgaria, as well as in other countries looking to raise the quality, equity and efficiency of their education systems.

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Croatia is taking decisive action to modernise its education and skills system, aiming to raise quality, expand access, and better align learning with labour market needs. This push for change comes at a critical time, as rapid demographic shifts have led to a growing number of small schools and a surplus of school teachers, putting pressure on education funding. Gaps in early childhood education and post-school learning limit opportunities for many learners, while a lack of data on student transitions makes it harder to track their pathways through and beyond education, and improve outcomes. Ensuring that education prepares young people and adults with the skills for the evolving demands of the labour market will be essential to support Croatia's aspirations of becoming a more innovative and competitive economy.
This report assesses Croatia's policies and practices against those of OECD and reference countries in Central and Eastern Europe, covering the full learning cycle - from early childhood education and care to lifelong learning. It identifies key strengths and challenges and explores how Croatia can use OECD evidence and international experience to sustain reforms, direct resources where they are most needed, and strengthen data to support policy decisions. The report will be of interest in Croatia and other countries seeking to build a more equitable, efficient, and responsive education system to support economic and social progress.

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This report introduces the OECD’s beta AI Capability Indicators. The indicators are designed to assess and compare AI advancements against human abilities. Developed over five years by a collaboration of over 50 experts, the indicators cover nine human abilities, from Language to Manipulation. Unique in the current policy space, these indicators leverage cutting-edge research to provide a clear framework for policymakers to understand AI's potential impacts on education, work, public affairs and private life.

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Romania's current education reform agenda marks the country's most ambitious effort to modernise its education and skills system since the post-democratic transition. Backed by significant investments, the reforms aim to raise quality, expand access, and equip learners with the skills needed to thrive in a changing economy. This push for change comes at a critical juncture. Despite strong economic performance, urban-rural disparities in living standards are widening, labour force participation remains low among youth, women and Roma, and informal employment is high. Improving educational outcomes through more effective policies and practices will be essential to placing Romania on a more sustainable and inclusive growth path.
This report assesses Romania's policies and practices against those of OECD and reference countries in Central and Eastern Europe, covering the full learning lifecycle-from early childhood education and care to lifelong learning. It identifies the system's major strengths and challenges and explores how Romania can draw on OECD evidence and international experience to advance its education reform agenda. The report will be of interest in Romania, as well as in other countries looking to raise the quality, equity and efficiency of their education systems.

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This report sets out key findings from PISA as they relate to teenage career development. It shows that across OECD countries, students are now expressing very high levels of career uncertainty and confusion. Job expectations have changed little since 2000 and bear little relationship to actual patterns of labour market demand, including in working areas of high strategic importance. The education plans of students moreover are more strongly shaped by social background than by academic performance. Many students understandably exhibit considerable anxiety about their career preparation. Wider longitudinal research shows that participation in many career development activities is positively associated with better employment outcomes. However, PISA shows that too few students in most countries are engaging in activities which are most strongly related with better transitions. In particular, young people are not getting enough guidance in crucial fields which connect them with employers and people in work.

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The New Professionalism and the Future of Teaching project has devised a theoretical framework that allows stakeholders in education to construct a shared vision on what the teaching profession could look like in the future. This study in Austria seeks to anticipate and increase deeper, structured thinking about medium- and long-term scenarios for teacher professionalism and empowerment. Potential benefits for the system include long-term strategic thinking regarding the Austrian teacher workforce and finding solutions to issues that transcend the short-term. The results of the study point to a focus on collaborative school cultures, teacher autonomy and professional identity, leadership (on various levels) and an innovation culture with a diversity of roles within the teacher workforce, as elements of specific importance in thinking about the possible future of the teaching profession in Austria.

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Following a series of reforms in higher education and vocational education and training (VET), Lithuania identified a need to improve the coherence, effectiveness and efficiency of its external evaluation and quality assurance (QA) systems for both sectors. Drawing on insights from nine comparator systems and OECD-wide data, the report offers recommendations and a proposed roadmap for Lithuania to strengthen the external evaluation and QA systems for higher education and VET as well as build a wider ecosystem for pedagogical enhancement and policies to build supportive framework conditions for quality and relevance. This report was prepared by the OECD as part of the Project "Strengthening the system of evaluation and quality assurance in higher education and vocational education and training in Lithuania”, funded by the European Union’s Technical Support Instrument, and produced at the request of, and in close collaboration with, the Lithuanian Ministry of Education, Science and Sports, and the European Commission.

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In an era of rapid change, it is important to not lose sight of the potential of high-quality teaching and the power of refining teaching practices that have demonstrated impact. This report aims to deepen understanding of the complexities of teaching and its multifaceted nature as a discipline grounded in scientific research, but so too an art requiring creativity and a craft necessitating constant collaborative reflection and improvement. Focusing on 20 practices that support five key goals of high-quality teaching, this report draws from extensive research to delineate what we know – and what remains to be understood – about each. It also has built on the qualitative insights of more than 150 schools from 40 countries to better understand the complex realities of implementing these practices in day-to-day teaching. Achieving high-quality teaching is not a solitary pursuit; it also depends on the school environment, and the report explores how school leaders can enable high-quality teaching.

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The New Professionalism and the Future of Teaching project has devised a theoretical framework that allows stakeholders in education to construct a shared vision on what the teaching profession could look like in the future. This study in Wales seeks to anticipate and increase deeper, structured thinking about medium- and long-term scenarios for teacher professionalism and empowerment. Potential benefits for the system include long-term strategic thinking regarding the Welsh teacher workforce and finding solutions to issues that transcend the short-term. The results of the study point to mobilising community as a strength, building on professional learning and schools as learning organisations and introducing flexible pathways and diverse career opportunities as elements of specific importance in thinking about the possible future of the teaching profession in Wales.

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Higher education institutions in Bulgaria, like those elsewhere, are adapting to digital transformation, innovative teaching methods, and creating the conditions for inter-institutional collaboration. The Modernisation of Higher Education Institutions procedure was designed to support this shift. Funded through the European Social Fund (ESF), it aimed to expand digital learning, update higher education programmes, and strengthen their connection with the labour market.
This evaluation assesses the initiative’s achievements and implementation, examining its design, project selection, and execution within the broader higher education policy landscape in Bulgaria. It finds that the procedure made progress in expanding digital learning, fostering inter-university cooperation, and equipping educators with new skills. However, more structural changes – such as embedding competency-based education and ensuring the long-term sustainability of joint programmes – proved more challenging to achieve.
While statutory and funding constraints posed some obstacles to effective implementation, the initiative was able to lay the groundwork for long-term improvements in Bulgaria’s higher education system, offering valuable insights for shaping future higher education reforms.

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The COVID-19 pandemic prompted education systems around the world to shift to distance learning and exposed disparities in access to digital technologies and skills. In Bulgaria, concerns arose that some students and teachers lacked devices and the digital proficiency needed to effectively participate in online teaching and learning. Funded through REACT-EU, the Equal Access to School Education in Times of Crisis project (2021-2023) sought to address these challenges by improving digital access, supporting teachers, enhancing distance learning, and fostering parental involvement. This evaluation looks at what the project achieved. It finds promising practices and clear progress in closing technology gaps and strengthening basic digital skills, particularly for disadvantaged students. However, deeper changes—such as transforming teaching methods and increasing parental involvement—were harder to achieve. Many teachers needed more advanced training, and parents faced barriers beyond just digital skills. The project made Bulgaria’s education system more resilient to future disruptions, but lasting impact will require ongoing investment and a broader approach to digital learning. This report offers key lessons for policymakers and educators working to strengthen equitable digitalisation in education.

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Amidst a context of ongoing educational reforms, Wales is striving to support strong pathways and smooth transitions for upper secondary learners. This report was commissioned to support Wales’ ambitions for implementing the Curriculum for Wales and developing a cohesive, learner-centered upper secondary education system. The report explores how, internationally, countries organise upper secondary education, including the design of curricula and qualifications, and how these shape learner pathways and transitions. Drawing on insights from eight comparison systems and OECD-wide data, the report highlights policy pointers for Wales to support progression in learners’ pathways and to enable transitions to further and higher education – and the world beyond – for all learners.

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Building on the insights of the first two publications in the Strengthening the Impact of Education Research series, this third and final report shifts the focus from policy makers to the field, exploring the pivotal role of knowledge intermediaries. These organisations facilitate engagement with research among policy makers and practitioners, supporting evidence-informed decision making and practices in education. Drawing on new data from 288 such organisations across 34 countries, the report delves into the ways these intermediaries bridge the gap between education research, policy and practice. It highlights their efforts to disseminate evidence, foster collaboration, and build capacity for research use, while also identifying gaps in skills and infrastructure that demonstrate the need for further professionalisation of knowledge mobilisation. By offering actionable insights for policy makers, practitioners, researchers and intermediaries, this report emphasises the importance of co-ordination, evaluative thinking, and system-level strategies to maximise the impact of education research. It serves as a valuable resource for those seeking to understand and enhance the landscape of knowledge mobilisation, ensuring that education systems are better equipped to integrate evidence into policy and practice.

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Ukraine's New Ukrainian School (NUS) reform aims to make schooling engaging and stimulating by focusing on each student's personal development and their acquisition of key competencies. At the upper secondary level, implementing the NUS implies major changes in the country's Academic Lyceums. The OECD has developed this report to provide insights and advice for Ukraine’s reforms based on international evidence and experience. It combines analysis of international data, research, the experiences of country peers and Ukraine’s own recent experiences of implementing reforms. It provides policy options to support Ukraine’s ambitions to transform general upper secondary education in the country.

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